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The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) is conducted annually by the National Center for Health Statistics at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The NHIS is done primarily through face-to-face computer-assisted interviews in the homes of respondents. But telephone interviews are substituted on request, or where travel distances make in-home visits impractical.  

For each interviewed family, only one sample child is randomly selected by a computer program.  

The total number of households with a child or adolescent aged 3-17 for the years 2018 through 2021 was 26,422. 

Based on responses from family members, 9.5% of the children and adolescents randomly surveyed throughout the United States had ADHD.  

This proportion varied significantly based on age, rising from 1.5% for ages 3-5 to 9.6% for ages 6-11 and to 13.4% for ages 12-17. 

There was an almost two-to-one gap between the 12.4% prevalence among males and the 6.6% prevalence among females. 

There was significant variation by race/ethnicity. While rates among non-Hispanic whites (11.1%) and non-Hispanic blacks (10.5%) did not differ significantly, these two groups differed significantly from Hispanics (7.2%) and Others (6.6%). 

There were no significant variations in ADHD prevalence based on highest education level of family members. 

But family income had a significant relationship with ADHD prevalence, especially at lower incomes. For family incomes under the poverty line, the prevalence was 12.7%. That dropped to 10.3% for family incomes above the poverty level but less than twice that level. For all others it dropped further to about 8.5%. Although that might seem like poverty causes ADHD, we cannot draw that conclusion.  Other data indicate that adults with ADHD have lower incomes.  That would lead to more ADHD in kids from lower income families.

There was also significant geographic variation in reported prevalence rates. It was highest in the South, at 11.3%, then the Midwest at 10%, the Northeast at 9.1%, with a jump down to 6.9% in the West. 

Overall ADHD prevalence did not vary significantly by year over the four years covered by this study. 

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Study Conclusion:

This study highlights a consistently high prevalence of developmental disabilities among U.S. children and adolescents, with notable increases in other developmental delays and co-occurring learning and intellectual disabilities from 2018 to 2021. While the overall prevalence remained stable, these findings emphasize the need for continued research into potential risk factors and targeted interventions to address developmental challenges in youth.

It is also important to note that this study assessed the prevalence of ADHD being diagnosed by healthcare professionals.  Due to variations in healthcare accessibility across the country, the true prevalence of ADHD may differ still.

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Background:

An international research team used the nationally representative 2020–2021 U.S. Survey of Children’s Health to explore associations between ADHD, weeknight sleep insufficiency, and bedtime irregularity. 

"Sleep sufficiency" refers to the recommended amount of sleep for an individual. Sleep recommendations vary by age and other factors, such as health and lifestyle. For example, 7-9 hours is typically considered sufficient sleep for most adults, but an active teen may require closer to 10 hours of sleep per day.

Previous studies have shown that issues with both falling and staying asleep are common in individuals with ADHD.

The Study:

The team matched 7,671 children and adolescents with ADHD aged 3-17 to 51,572 controls.  

Noting that “The few available population-based studies examining sleep in children with ADHD have focused on circumscribed age ranges, limiting generalizability across childhood, and have seldom included controls,” and “bedtime irregularity has received limited empirical attention in children with ADHD,” this study focused on these aspects of sleep impairment. 

The study group excluded children and adolescents with ADHD with Down syndrome, current or lifetime cerebral palsy, and current or lifetime intellectual disability. In the control group, it excluded individuals with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, speech and language disorder, autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, anxiety, depression, behavioral or conduct problems, Tourette syndrome, and use of mental health services in the preceding 12 months. These groups were excluded to limit potential confounding factors.

After adjustment for covariates, parents of children and adolescents with ADHD reported weekday sleep insufficiency 65% more frequently than parents of controls.  

However, when comparing matched controls with children and adolescents with ADHD who were being treated with ADHD medication, there was no significant difference. 

Similarly, there was a small but significant effect size increase in bedtime irregularity among children and adolescents with ADHD relative to their matched controls. 

Yet there was also a small but significant effect size decrease in bedtime irregularity among those taking medication for ADHD relative to those who were unmedicated. 

The team noted, “Interestingly, here, ADHD medication use was linked to less bedtime irregularity across full and age-stratified samples, and not related to sleep insufficiency. However, research indicates the association between stimulant use and sleep problems is attenuated with longer duration of use, and also suggests the potential for stimulants to produce positive effects on sleep through reduced bedtime resistance. Further, ADHD medication type, not specified, may have influenced outcomes.” 

The Take-Away:

The study concluded that ADHD in children was linked to insufficient sleep and irregular bedtimes in a nationally representative sample, reinforcing and expanding previous research. The findings emphasize the influence of various factors on sleep insufficiency and bedtime irregularity, including race, screen time, poverty, ADHD severity, and depression.

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Background:

Noting that “the association between adult ADHD and dementia risk remains a topic of interest because of inconsistent results,” an Israeli study team tracked 109,218 members of a nonprofit Israeli health maintenance organization born between 1933 and 1952 who entered the cohort on January 1, 2003, without an ADHD or dementia diagnosis and were followed up to February 28, 2020. 

Israeli law forbids nonprofit HMOs from turning anyone away based on demographic factors,  health conditions, or medication needs, thereby limiting sample selection bias.  

The estimated prevalence of dementia in this HMO, as diagnosed by geriatricians, neurologists, or psychiatrists, is 6.6%. This closely matches estimates in Western Europe (6.9%) and the United States (6.5%). 

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Method:

The team considered, and adjusted for, numerous covariates: age, sex, socioeconomic status, smoking, depression, obesity, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hypertension, atrial fibrillation, heart failure, ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, migraine, mild cognitive impairment, psychostimulants. 

With these adjustments, individuals diagnosed with ADHD were almost three times as likely to be subsequently diagnosed with dementia as those without ADHD. Men with ADHD were two and a half times more likely to be diagnosed with dementia, whereas women with ADHD were over three times more likely, than non-ADHD peers. 

More concerning still, persons with ADHD were 5.5 times more likely to be subsequently diagnosed with early onset dementia, as opposed to 2.4 times more likely to be diagnosed with late onset dementia. 

On the other hand, the team found no significant difference in rates of dementia between individuals with ADHD who were being treated with stimulant medications and individuals without ADHD. Those with untreated ADHD had three times the rate of dementia. The team nevertheless cautioned, “Due to the underdiagnosis of dementia as well as bidirectional misdiagnosis, this association requires further study before causal inference is plausible.” 

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Conclusions and Relevance:

This study reinforces existing evidence that adult ADHD is associated with an increased risk of dementia. Notably, the increased risk was not observed in individuals receiving psychostimulant medication, however the mechanism behind this association is not clear.

These findings underscore the importance of reliable ADHD assessment and management in adulthood. They also highlight the need for further study into the link between stimulant medications and the decreased risk of dementia.

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Given the persistence of ADHD and its adverse effects on children and adolescents, one might expect caregivers to face greater parenting challenges, with potential effects on their own mental health. 

To what extent do parenting stress, depression, and – at the extreme – even suicidal ideation manifest themselves among caregivers of ADHD patients as opposed to caregivers of children and adolescents without ADHD? 

A pair of Korean researchers made use of their country’s single-payer health insurance system, which maintains records on virtually the entire population, to perform a nationwide population study. They used data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (KNHANES) covering the decade from 2011 to 2020. KNHANES is an annual survey using a sophisticated sampling design conducted by the Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare to represent the entire population of South Korea. 

The analysis included 14,428 individuals who had children younger than 19 at the time of participation. All were asked whether their child had ever been diagnosed with ADHD by a physician. The mental health problems of the parents were assessed in terms of perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and suicidality. 

Of the 14,428 participants, 8,298 (57.5 %) were mothers and 6,130 (42.5 %) were fathers. Of the mothers, 116 (1.4 %) had a child with ADHD, and of the fathers, 86 (1.4 %) had a child with ADHD. 

The researchers adjusted for the following confounders: age of caregiver, education level, household income, area of residence, employment status, alcohol consumption, smoking status, cohabitation status, number of children, and child’s age. 

After adjustment, mothers of ADHD patients fared significantly worse than mothers of typically developing children on all three categories of mental health problems. They were 67% more likely to report higher stress, three times as likely to report symptoms of depression, and 2.5 times more likely to report suicidal ideation.  

Yet that pattern did not carry over to fathers, where there was no significant difference in mental health indicators between fathers of children with ADHD and fathers of children without ADHD. 

The authors concluded, “Parents of children with ADHD, especially mothers, need community support and public health attention to help alleviate their mental health problems.” 

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Background: 

ADHD is commonly accompanied by psychiatric comorbidities that complicate its diagnosis and treatment. Roughly two out of three affected children and adolescents have one or more comorbid psychiatric disorder. 

Because the peak age of ADHD onset is typically a decade or more earlier than those for schizophrenia, depressive disorder, or bipolar disorder, it is essential to explore these comorbidities over an extended period. Populations studies help researchers identify broader patterns and trends within an entire population and includes adults as well as children. This type of study provides unique insights into the population at large, rather than a sample group.

In earlier studies the maximum follow-up period was twelve years, insufficient in view of the roughly ten years between onset of ADHD and onset of major psychiatric disorders. Also, previous nationwide population studies have included less than 150,000 participants. 

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The Study:

This study, relying on data from South Korea’s universal single-payer health insurance system, included over one and a half million individuals. Persons previously diagnosed with depression, bipolar disorder, tic disorder, or schizophrenia were excluded. 

382,434 individuals had been diagnosed with ADHD, while 1,169,279 were without an ADHD diagnosis.  

Propensity score matching ensured that potential confounders, both sociodemographic and clinical, were equalized for the ADHD and control groups. After matching, there were 353,898 individuals in each group. 

After these adjustments, individuals in the ADHD group were at least an order of magnitude more likely to subsequently be diagnosed with  psychiatric disorders than their peers without an ADHD diagnosis: 

• Almost eleven times more likely to be diagnosed with depressive disorder. 

• More than twelve times as likely to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder. 

• Over thirteen times more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia. 

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Conclusion:

The Korean study team concluded, “Overall, our findings suggest that upon prolonged examination, the risk of subsequent diagnoses of other psychiatric disorders in individuals with ADHD appears to be higher than that reported previously. … Therefore, patients with ADHD should be carefully screened for the presence of other psychiatric symptoms on a regular basis from an earlier age … It is advisable to have a follow-up period extending beyond 10 years to sufficiently identify the occurrence of comorbid disorders in patients with ADHD.” 

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Children with ADHD often face challenges in social interactions, leading to long-term consequences if not properly addressed. While various interventions exist, many fail to consider the broader social context in which these children interact. A recent study conducted in Bergen, Norway, explored how primary school teachers perceive their role in supporting children with ADHD who struggle socially and the strategies they use to assist them.

Investigating Teacher Perspectives

Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with five focus groups of primary school teachers. Using reflexive thematic analysis, they identified two major themes:

1. Understanding Individual Needs in Context – Teachers emphasized that every child is unique, and ADHD should not define a student's social struggles. They highlighted the importance of considering the child’s specific social challenges within their broader environment.
2. Adapting Strategies Through Continuous Assessment – Teachers described their work as a dynamic and flexible process, adjusting their approaches based on the child's evolving needs. This included providing subtle background support as well as direct guidance in social interactions.

A Personalized Approach to Social Support

Rather than relying on standardized interventions, teachers tailored their strategies to foster an inclusive and supportive social environment. Their methods included both active participation in social situations and behind-the-scenes efforts to encourage peer inclusion and understanding.

Rethinking ADHD and Social Development

This study underscores the need to move beyond labels and recognize children with ADHD as individuals with distinct social needs. Teachers play a crucial role in shaping these children’s experiences, using flexible and personalized approaches to promote positive social interactions. By integrating social context and individualized support, educators can help children with ADHD build meaningful connections and navigate their social world more effectively.

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Background:

“Junk food” is a shorthand for highly processed foods and beverages with low nutritional value and dietary fiber that are typically high in added sugars, starches, and additives intended to boost flavor, color, texture, and shelf life. 

Previous studies examining such an association have yielded contradictory or inconclusive results. 

Method:

An Iranian research team therefore conducted a systematic search of the peer-reviewed medical literature to run a meta-analysis of data from studies published to date. 

Meta-analysis of nine studies, with a combined total of over 58,000 persons, found that children and adolescents who consumed more junk foods were about 25% more likely to exhibit ADHD symptoms. Restricting this to the seven studies rated good or high quality (7+ out of 10 on the Newcastle–Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale) produced the same exact outcome.  

The result was consistent across individual studies, with low heterogeneity. There was no sign of publication bias. 

Breaking this down by subtype of junk food: 

• Combining six studies with over 52,000 total participants, sugary beverages including soft drinks were associated with the same 25% increase in ADHD symptoms. Heterogeneity was moderate. 

• Combining three studies with over 1,600 total participants, solid sweets and candies were associated with a greater than one-third increase in ADHD symptoms. There was no variation in outcome among the three studies. 

• Combining three studies with over 22,000 total participants, other heavily processed foods were associated with a 17% increase in ADHD symptoms. Again, there was no variation in outcome among the three studies. 

The team used data adjusted for confounders: “We used … adjusted OR [odds ratios] for the meta-analysis.” 

This outcome, while suggestive, should be interpreted cautiously due to limitations: 

• ADHD symptoms were rated by parents or caregivers using standardized questionnaires. ADHD diagnoses by qualified medical professionals are the gold standard, and were not used. 

• Junk food consumption was likewise estimated by parents or caregivers through answers to questionnaires. There was no direct measurement of consumption. Answers were categorical, making it impossible to look for dose-response relationships. 

• Even if the association holds with further study, it is unclear whether impulsivity associated with ADHD leads to greater consumption of junk foods, or junk food consumption somehow harms development of the nervous system, or the relationship is due to unmeasured confounding by other variables.   

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Conclusion:

The team concluded, “This meta-analysis of observational studies adds strong evidence linking the consumption of junk foods, particularly, sweetened beverages/soft drinks and sweets/candies, with ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents. However, the study did not evaluate the causality of the relationship. So, to identify causality and the dose–response effects of junk food consumption on the development of ADHD, further studies are warranted.” 

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A research team based in London (U.K.) has just released the first meta-analysis to explore whether young people with ADHD experience greater loneliness compared to young people without ADHD.  

There has been a lot of research into social-emotional functioning in ADHD focusing on social networks and peer functioning problems, with little inquiry into young people’s experience of and satisfaction with their relationships.  

The team noted, “This is an important distinction as loneliness, or perceived social isolation, is the subjective feeling of distress due to a perceived deficit in the quantity and quality of one’s social relationships. An individual may be objectively socially isolated but may not have a negative perception of their relationships and equally, someone may find their social relationships lacking despite having a large social network … As loneliness and social isolation (e.g., number of friends or size of social network) have been found to be weakly correlated, it is important to capture the loneliness experience of the young person rather than relying on just the objective measures of social isolation.” 

Loneliness is a public health concern, as it predicts increases in depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicidal ideation. 

The team performed a systematic search of the peer-reviewed medical literature to identify quantitative studies that compared loneliness among young people under 25 diagnosed with ADHD with non-ADHD matched controls. The search excluded studies in which participants had intellectual disabilities and/or other neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism spectrum disorder. 

Meta-analysis of 15 studies with a combined 6,281 participants found that young people with ADHD experienced greater loneliness than their non-ADHD peers with a small-to-medium effect size. There was no sign of publication bias, but very high variation (heterogeneity) in outcomes across the studies.  

Removing one small outlier study, the remaining 14 studies with 6,099 participants brought heterogeneity down to moderate levels, and yielded a medium effect size increase in perceived loneliness among young people with ADHD.  

Conclusion: 

“The findings in this study highlight the importance of understanding loneliness in this population as young people with ADHD report significantly higher levels of loneliness compared to their non-ADHD peers, and loneliness in young people with ADHD is associated with a range of mental health difficulties,” the researchers stated. “More resources should be focused on loneliness as a separate construct from social isolation and peer difficulties.” 

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A recent study published in Alpha Psychiatry sheds light on the connection between ADHD, empathy, and narcissistic traits. Researchers aimed to evaluate how pharmacological treatments—specifically psychostimulants—affect empathy deficits and pathological narcissism in adults with ADHD. These findings could have important implications for enhancing treatment outcomes and improving social functioning.

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Study Overview:
The study involved 75 adult ADHD patients who were treated with either methylphenidate or atomoxetine. Researchers assessed levels of narcissistic traits and empathy using validated tools such as the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI) and the Empathy Quotient (EQ). Measurements were taken before treatment and after three months of therapy.

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Key Findings:

• Narcissistic Traits: Patients showed a significant reduction in grandiosity and vulnerability scores, with total PNI scores decreasing after treatment.
• Empathy Levels: Empathy improved significantly, as reflected by higher post-treatment EQ scores.
• Overall Impact: These changes suggest that psychostimulant treatment positively influences brain circuits related to empathy and narcissistic tendencies, potentially leading to better interpersonal relationships.

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Why It Matters:
Adults with ADHD often struggle with social interactions, partly due to empathy deficits and personality traits like narcissism. By addressing these challenges through psychostimulant treatment, patients may experience better social and emotional well-being. This study underscores the importance of viewing ADHD treatment as not just a way to manage symptoms but also a means to improve overall quality of life.

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Takeaway
Effective ADHD treatment goes beyond managing attention and hyperactivity. By improving empathy and reducing narcissistic traits, psychostimulants can foster healthier relationships and enhance social functioning. This research highlights the need for comprehensive care that considers the broader psychological and interpersonal effects of ADHD.

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According to Fosco et al. (2019), “Inhibitory control has long been considered a central neurocognitive process in ADHD, with ADHD groups typically showing medium-sized impairments relative to their typically-developing peers on common inhibition paradigms.” 

Learning to play a musical instrument requires effective coordination of physical movements and sound signals to produce music. Musical training involves repetitive practice, perfecting connections between perceptions, muscular actions, and cognition. 

Noting that listening to music activates the brain’s reward circuits in both children and adults, that “Being internally motivated during learning experiences increases learning capacity and efficiency, and this greater engagement is reflected in increased electrical brain activity following musical training,” and that “Training music in a social environment increases positive feelings of bonding through shared emotions and group synchrony,” a Montreal-based research team carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis of the peer-reviewed medical literature from 1980 to 2023 to learn what effect music training might have on inhibition control. 

Outcomes:

The team found eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 14 other longitudinal studies that met search criteria, including: 

• Music training was with neurotypical children and adolescents 

• The experimental group was trained using music alone 

• Studies were longitudinal, with either active or passive controls 

• Studies included a performance-based inhibition control measure as an outcome 

Meta-analysis of all 22 longitudinal studies with a combined total of 1,734 participants yielded a small-to-medium effect size improvement in inhibitory control. Variation (heterogeneity) in outcomes between individual studies was small, and there was no sign of publication bias. Restricting the analysis to the eight RCTs with a combined total of 641 participants, however, yielded a medium-to-large effect size improvement, with negligible heterogeneity, meaning the outcome was consistent across RCTs. 

‍The Take-Away: The team concluded, “Music training plays a privileged role compared to other activities (sports, visual arts, drama) in improving children’s executive functioning, with a particular effect on inhibition control.”   I cannot, however, recommend this as a therapy for ADHD until RCTs show it reduces symptoms of ADHD and/or real world impairments associated with the disorder.